Growing in Christ
Scripture
Review and Giveaway: Collected Writings on Scripture
1 year ago
At the end of this post there will be instructions on how to enter the book giveaway. Now that you’ve skipped ahead and already entered your name, I hope you enjoy the book review!
REVIEW
D.A. Carson’s latest book, Collected Writings on Scripture, is fundamentally nothing new from the author. Just as the title indicates, this is a collection of his writings on the subject of Scripture. Section one is devoted to standalone articles that the author has written on various subjects within the field of the doctrine of Scripture. Section two consists of reviews Carson has written of other books on the doctrine of Scripture. With that in mind, let me introduce my review as follows:
The Don’s latest book is split in two sections.
I shall do the same here, and I pray: No objections!
PART 1
—Summary—
Chapter one, “Approaching the Bible” presents a basic introduction to the doctrine of Scripture, addressing the questions What is the Bible? and How do we interpret the Bible? This chapter, I think, could easily be handed to any believer as a crash course on the doctrine of Scripture, and they’d be more thoroughly enriched to love and enjoy the Bible.
Chapter two, “Recent Developments in the Doctrine of Scripture” holds to its name and engages a wide range of issues stemming from postmodern affronts, addressing revisionist historyography to The New Hermeneutic and epistemological issues. Of the first section of the book, I think this might be the most immediately helpful chapter for readers, engaging a wide range of battle lines on the doctrine that are increasingly working their way into the normal life of the church, especially the younger generation as it realtes to the epistemology of postmodernism. However, if you think you’re getting out of this chapter without a word to you, dear Christian, please remain in your seat. Carson has a challenging word for Evangelicals on the diminishing authority of the Scriptures in churches today.
We are experts, and we live in a generation of experts. But the cost is high: we gradually lose our sense of indebtedness to grace, we no longer cherish our complete dependence on the God of all grace, and we begin to reject themes like self-sacrifice and discipleship in favor of courses on successful living and leadership in the church…Mere conservatism must not be confused with godliness, mere discipline with discipleship, mere assent to orthodox doctrine with wholehearted delight in the truth. (107)
This illustrates the classic, clear-eyed Carson who sees issues, not in terms of polemics, but in terms of faithfulness. And he calls you to the same.
Chapter three opens up the issue of unity and diversity in the New Testament as it relates to the development of Systematic Theology. Here Carson gives interaction to the nuances of the New Testament in biblical theology and the summarizing work of systematic theology.
Chapter four engages the issues of redaction criticism and how it can be used helpfully, in spite of all the poor ways it has been used by scholars in the past. Redaction criticism should not be seen as the churches enemy, but a tool exegetes can use in how they understand the theological structures biblical authors are presenting.
And finally, Chapter five deals with the clarity of Scripture. Is it still relevant to us today? Has the church always held to it? Yes, and yes, and thank you Carson. While there are many authors in the Bible, there is one Author behind it all, using the Bible to edify and strengthen his church through the ages.
—Who Should Read This Book—
There are two categories of people who should read this book:
- Pastors. For those especially called to the ministry of the Word, they need material that will keep them informed on what issues are at stake in our own times. The book itself isn’t written as a comprehensive discourse on the doctrine of Scripture, but I think it is a helpful complimentary volume to those books to keep a pastor up to date and fresh in his thinking on the subject. Some articles are more difficult than others, but in typical Carson fashion, it doesn’t stay like that for long and hanging with him will pay off in helping you think about the issue more clearly. I think every pastor should have a copy of this in their library because at some point they are going to be confronted with one or several of the issues Carson addresses in this book, and they will find it a dear friend indeed.
- Lay students. The people I have in mind here are folks who are twofold: 1) People who not pastors or professional scholars, but are readers all the same; and 2) Students in higher education especially interested in figuring out these subjects. The literary world is rift with horrible books on this subject, and I think laymen and women who have the mind to engage these issues should read this book and have the material readily on hand to help those with questions in the church. Carson’s material here will help people who enjoy scholarly commentaries that might use exegetical tools questionably be able to understand why they feel uncomfortable with the conclusions these scholars use and yet still be able to benefit from their resources.
PART 2
This section of Carson’s book includes major book reviews he’s done on works about the doctrine of Scripture. A summary here seems unnecessary since he has nine book reviews all addressing different areas. The two books that Carson does engage that I think people will find most relevant are his reviews of Peter Enn’s Inspiration and Incarnation and N.T. Wright’s The Last Word/Scripture and the Authority of God. These two have raised a lot of attention in America in the last few years, and Carson’s insights and penetrating analysis give us helpful guides in thinking through the nature of Scripture in the modern debate. It is, for example, helpful to think through how the analogy of the Incarnation of the Son of God maps on to the word of God in human words. As Carson asks:
If the incarnation is to be our model for how we think of Scripture, or even of Scripture’s humanness, how do such elementary distinctions as these play out? What might it mean to say that Scripture is composed of thoroughly human, but perfect, documents? Or does the analogy break down? If so, why and where? None of this is discussed. (269)
When it comes to addressing Wright’s book, Carson is equally helpful and penetrating in the types of questions he prompts us to ask about what is being presented.
—Why You Should Read This Part—
In addition to my thoughts on who should read this book above, I’d like to give a further observation unique to this section. In this section, Carson teaches us how to think. In how he presents each book’s material fairly and precisely, and then moves into how he picks up each issue, turns it around, and asks insightful questions, he’s showing us how to process theological issues in the presence of God. One doesn’t get the impression of arrogance or belittling. But neither does one get the impression of fluffy and easy appreciation. Carson sets out to show us what to appreciate, how to appreciate, and how to critically set aside and ask good, hard questions. What is presented in this section, I think, is a challenging and encouraging example of how a Christian mind should think through difficult issues with grace and conviction, under the authority of Scripture.
Conclusion
All in all, I think the book is an important supplementary read on the doctrine of Scripture that will keep the reader abreast of the major issues of our times in this field and give them guidance on how to think them through to the glory of Christ.
Title: Collected Writings on Scripture
Author: D.A. Casron
Boards: hardcover
Pages: 335
Volumes: 1
Dust jackets: yes
Binding: sewn
Topical index: yes (subjects and names)
Scriptural index: yes
Publisher: Crossway
Year: 2010
Price USD: $27.99 / $18.47 at WTSBooks
ISBN: 978-1-4335-1441-8
*Yes, I stole this book facts-sheet summary from Tony Reinke!
GIVEAWAY
Ok, so Crossway has graciously provided another copy for me to give away, and here’s the rules:
- How to enter: Leave a comment on this post.
- US addresses only.
- You can only enter once.
- The giveaway will end on Thursday, October 14, 2010 at 10pm Eastern Standard Time with the winner being announced Friday, October 15.
For your Sunday edification
0In 1 Timothy 4:13 Paul tells Timothy to be devoted “to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation, to teaching” (1 Timothy 4:13). At our church we’ve done public recitations of Scripture from time to time. Below if a video of one of our pastor’s doing just that. We’ve been preaching through Acts, and as a part of it, one of our pastor’s was assigned to memorize and recite the sermon and trial of Stephen in Acts 6:8-8:3. It was very powerful to see – God’s Word living on our stage!
Anyhow, this would be a good use of 13 minutes if you have the time today for stir your soul.
If you’d like to check out some good sermons on Acts, check out Martyn Lloyd-Jones:
First Semester: Completed.
12 years ago
Sorry to be rather sparse on the posts lately. I’ve had the end of semester stuff going on, plus normal life, plus a massive blizzard, and a serious bought of post-semester laziness. But, as my wife says to me sometimes in the morning: “Get your lazy butt out of bed!” So, needless to say, I’ve got a few posts back-logged in my head. I am wanting to do blogging a little more faithfully this coming year, and am thinking of doing a regular posting of twice a week. We’re heading out on vacation tomorrow, so I’ll have some time to think it through, “count the costs” so to speak, and set a plan for fighting my sloth in this area.
Thoughts on my first semester completed.
I took Prolegomena to Theology, the introductory material for Systematic Theology. In the course we covered the grounds for theology, what it means for God to reveal himself, what it means to be creatures created in his image to engage with God, what the nature of Scripture is, and a little on the relation between Systematic Theology and Biblical Theology. Twelve lectures, lots of fun, lots of grrrrreat! stuff! (BTW, I have the audio and course material for the class if you’d like me to upload it for download. Hmm…24 hours of lectures, can’t you feel the anticipation!)
The Bible
One of the major things that I came away from the class reflecting on is how much I love the Bible. Here in the Bible itself we have the very voice of God. One of the thoughts that I was struck by in thinking through this is that when the Bible speaks, God speaks. When the Prophets and Apostles set to write scripture, they wrote the very thoughts of God. Karl Barth is dead wrong. When you read, “Grace to you and peace from God our Father” in Colossians 1:2, that is simultaneously Paul’s words and God’s words. So, here in my hands I hold the way of life – God’s voice to me. “The law of the Lord is perfect, reviving the soul; the testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple,” (Psalm 19:7).
Salvation
Without scripture as our glasses, we will never see the world aright. This is something I had learned from our good friend John Calvin before, but it was very helpful to walk through it over and over again in all its implications. The knowledge of God is for humility, not for the pride of my own achievement. Apart from God’s grace in the power and work of the Holy Spirit, I would still hate God and be bound to my own vain attempts to make myself God. I would know God and hate God all in the same moment. But I see God rightly through Jesus Christ by his grace. Epistemological accuracy is a gift from God, not of our own doing, along with all the other benefits God gives us (life, joy, peace, etc.). We think rightly after God because God has been merciful.
Continuationism
We touched briefly on the subjects of spiritual gifts in the course material because the subject itself addresses the issue of the nature of revelation. We read some cessationist material, and had some course lecture on the subject, and while I can see the logic in some places, I don’t see the Scriptural backing or the theological necessity. At one point it was helpful for our professor to make the observation that there are some continuationists that he recognizes as being orthodox on the nature of revelation and Scripture, but whom he doesn’t agree with their final conclusions (i.e. Piper, Grudem, etc.). I can respect that. But in the end, the more I study the subject from various angles, the more convinced I am that the continuationist perspective is what Scripture teaches.
Family
One of the difficult things to learn how to juggle was how to incorporate a part time job (school) into a regular full time job and family life. The first month of class was difficult, but after my first assignment, I made adjustments on how I did my school work so that I made the most of my time. We got a good schedule going by the end of the semester. The main thing here is being intentional. We had to do regular date nights. We had to be proactive with friends. I had to be sure that I knew how Michelle was, what was going on with her, and in many ways, share with her what I was learning and enjoying in class.
I really loved my class. It was very informative and shaping. I know that I will reference the material for the rest of my life. I’m looking forward to the semester ahead. I’ll be taking ST113: The Doctrine of God. Very good stuff ahead in that class, very important to both knowledge of God and ministry.
God, the First Theologian
02 years ago
A small thought from class has been this simple yet profound truth: God is the first theologian. If we understand (rightly, I think) that “theology” is “words about God”, then in light of God’s trinitarian nature, God is the first theologian. God speaks his glory and his wonder before any human engagement of God. It is, as we might observe, God’s inherent nature to speak about God – “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” (John 1:1).
It is in God’s self-contained communication and enjoyment of himself that we find rest then to know God. God sees all that he is and finds it not only good, but delightful and the most worthy thing to speak about. If I might say this, that is why the Son is so massively important to God – it is God’s communication and enjoyment of himself taken on personality. That is a massive thought to me, and one that makes me pause from saying more to give it further thought (though I know it’s how Edward’s formulated the Trinity – here).
But let us dwell on this – when we think about God, when we think true thoughts about him, we are thinking God’s thoughts after him (a phrase Van Til made famous, which actually comes – in my reading – from Bavinck, though certainly it could be older). God thinks clear thoughts about himself. God sees, communicates, and receives clearly and rationally all that he is. That is fundamental to the doctrine of the Trinity; that is what it means for God to be the first theologian. God writes in himself the grandest and deepest theological volume ever – that’s right, before Calvin, Augustine, and Paul even come close to hitting the scene. (Just a thought – his book consists of actual, real time 3D people – ahem, one is reading this right now – who have a manual for understanding him. God doesn’t write fiction.)
God’s thoughts about himself are self-contained. Therefore, all my thoughts about God are an act of mercy. Thus, it is through his Word to me that I see his kindness and mercy – and assurance merely through the presence of the Bible that God wants me to know him. The Bible is itself a beacon of hope that God does not want me to stay how I am – in my sick, twisted, wreck of a life. He wants me to know him, and he loved this wicked life so much that he gave his Son to die for my sin in my place for the wrath I deserved so that I can know this wonderful God who loves and enjoys his glory, and wants me to enjoy it to.
Meditation
For God to be the first theologian means that all aspects of my life are ruled by theology. Why? Because all of God’s thoughts are God-centered, therefore all of my thoughts (being created in his image) are God-centered as well. And yet, I seek to deify myself and reject God as being the source and center of my being. We commonly know this practice as sin (fyi). And now the deep reality – for God to be the first theologian, and for me to be chief plagiarizing theologian, means I need a mediating theologian. I need the theology of mediation – who is the incarnate Word, Jesus Christ (John 1:14). What all of this massive reality of God as first theologian means is this: I NEED the Gospel. I therefore tremble before the Gospel, in desperate need and dependence. How often do you fall on your face before the living, majestic God after reading dense, deep, instructive, important theological works? (You should try it some time – it makes the theology make more sense.)
With God as the first theologian, David’s Psalm makes a little more sense: “in your light do we see light” (Psalm 36:9). Because God thinks about himself clearly, we can think about him clearly. That’s a helpful and deeply comforting truth to battle our relativistic, post-modern doubts. How can we know truth? We can know Truth rightly because Truth knows itself; Truth is self-conscious.
Therefore, when my emotions, depression, doubts, sin, fear all assail my soul, how can I survive? By looking to God’s theologizing about himself – the Bible; a 3D book about God.
How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord,
Is laid for your faith in His excellent Word!
What more can He say than to you He hath said,
You, who unto Jesus for refuge have fled?
A Clear and Present Word
02 years ago
I’m currently reading through A Clear and Present Word: The Clarity of Scripture by Mark D. Thompson, and after doing a little google search, found to my surprise that Kevin DeYoung actually read the book and blogged through it earlier this year. I plan to post some thoughts on the book in the days/weeks to come, but here are his posts on it for those that might be interested in reading the book or DeYoung’s thoughts:
A Clear and Present Word (1)
A Clear and Present Word (2)
A Clear and Present Word (3)
A Clear and Present Word (4)
A Clear and Present Word (5)
Buy the book here, with a .pdf of the first chapter for free here.
Puritan Meditation
02 years ago
I read Joel Beeke’s essay, The Puritan Practice of Meditation yesterday morning and found it quite insightful, helpful, and edifying. I have personally had the consistent discipline of reading the Scriptures every morning for about three years now, though with more structure and benefit with a reading plan for a little over a year now. While reading the Bible is an essential aspect of the Christian life, it is through meditating, mulling over, and deeply dwelling on the splendor of God’s word that we find life – “I will meditate on your precepts and fix my eyes on your ways. I will delight in your statutes; I will not forget your word” Psalm 119:15,16. It is through this meditation that God answers our prayers that he would open our eyes the “wondrous things out of [His] law” (Psalm 119: 18).
In the essay, Beeke provides a helpful definition of meditation from the Purtian, Edmund Calamy:
A true meditation is when a man doth so meditate of Christ as to get his heart inflamed with the love of Christ; so meditate of the Truths of God, as to be transformed into them; and so meditate of sin as to get his heart to hate sin.
Meditation is not the emptying of the mind, but rather, it is diligent and intentional attention of the soul to mold itself (by the power of the Spirit) around and into the things of God.
There are seven reasons that Beeke lists the Puritans giving for the practice of meditation.
- God commands us to meditate on his word – which is reason enough. “Take to heart all the words by which I am warning you today, that you may command them to your children, that they may be careful to do all the words of this law” (Deuteronomy 32:46).
- We should meditate on the Word of God as a letter God has written to us. How gracious of God to so love and care for us as to give us a word, a picture of his wisdom in written form.
- One cannot be a solid Christian without meditation. He quotes Thomas Watson as saying, “A Christian without meditation is like a soldier without arms, or a workman without tools. Without meditation the truths of God will not stay with us; the heart is hard, and the memory slippery, and without meditation all is lost.”
- Without meditation, the preached Word will fail to profit us.
- Without meditation, our prayers will be less effective. Thomas Manton notes that “Meditation is a middle sort of duty between the word and prayer, and hath respect to
both. The word feedeth meditation , and meditation feedeth prayer; we must hear that we
be not erroneous, and meditate that we be not barren. These duties must always go hand
in hand; meditation must follow hearing and precede prayer.” - Christians who fail to meditate are unable to defend truth. The idea here – and how many examples are there of this sad reality in our day! – is that without a diligent application of oneself to be molded to the Scripture, they cannot know God properly, know themselves truly, or defend His truth rightly.
- Much like number 4, meditation is an essential part to preparing to hear sermons.
What I found most interesting about this list is how private medatation has public implications. When one is saved by Jesus and birthed by the Holy Spirit, they are born into a family. That family is the Church, manifested in the local church body. There they regularly hear the preached word as the means of their public diet and guidance as a congregation. What is interesting here is that an essential aspect of benefiting from the pastor’s labors to present God’s word to us is that we are daily – through the week – immersed in that same Word. To benefit from public offerings we must be mulling over them ourselves. It is interesting here to see how the Puritans saw our private life and public life intimately connected. And we might deduce here that personal declension in these areas will inevitably contribute to the public declension of our congregations if unrepented of.
The essay goes on in detail to discuss various other aspects of Purtain meditation which I recommend reading. What I want to do is just note a few other aspects that might help us meditate more, producing hearts filled with a “joy that is inexpressible and filled with glory” (1 Peter 1:8).
In beginning the practice of meditation, the Puritans advised that we first simply begin by asking the Holy Spirit for assistance. Just simply pray that God would meet us in our attempts to know him more. God really is out to meet our prayers; his posture towards us is eager graciousness. Next, in picking up what subjects to meditate upon, one should simply read the Scriptures and select a verse or doctrine to meditate on. In the beginning, pick basic doctrines like the attributes of God that have profound depths, while not necessarily being overly complex subjects (i.e. “God is love” is easier to understand than say “the righteousness of God”). Also, they recommended meditation on those subjects which were more applicable to one’s present circumstances. There is more from here, but this should give a taste of the thought line they followed – no different than teachers today, but always helpful to see. Also, Beeke provides a helpful (and extensive!) list of “subjects of meditation”. Should one be struggling for subjects to meditate upon, struggle no more!
Another aspect of interest for the subject of meditation that the Puritans bring to the fore is the reality that meditation prepares us for benefiting from the grace of the Lord’s Supper. Puritan Thomas White says,
“Meditate upon your preparatory, concomitant and subsequent duties: Meditate upon the love of God the Father, upon the love of God the Son, Jesus Christ, consider the excellency of his person, the greatness of his sufferings, and how valid they be to the satisfaction of Gods Justice, and so likewise to consider of the excellency, nature, and use of the Sacrament.”
The Lord Jesus gave us the Lord’s Supper as a particular grace to be received as a picture and blessing of the Gospel until his return. It is a picture of the Gospel. Proper meditation on the depths of the Gospel in the sacrifice and atonement of Christ will serve our souls to benefit most fully from the grace of the sacrament.
Meditation is, at it’s core, about communion with, and enjoyment of, God himself. God has “brought near by the blood of Christ” (Ephesians 2:13). If we are near, we are to know. If we are to know, we are to enjoy. It is to our own detriment if we do not enjoy God in meditating on and mulling over his Word, spending time thinking and feeling deeply about God. Dr. Beeke closes with an exhortation from Thomas Watson, that I’ll leave us with here:
If you have formerly neglected it, bewail your neglect, and now begin to make conscience of it: lock up yourselves with God (at least once a day) by holy meditation. Ascend this hill, and when you are gotten to the top of it, you shall see a fair prospect, Christ and heaven before you. Let me put you in mind of that saying of Bernard, “O saint, knowest thou not that thy husband Christ is bashful, and will not be familiar in company, retire thyself by meditation into the closet, or the field, and there thou shalt have Christ’s embraces.”
(All quotes taken from Joel’s Beeke’s essay linked above.)
Scripture’s Suit
0“And whereas that truth, which originally is one in him, is of various sorts and kinds, according to the variety of the things which it respects in its communication unto us, the ways and means of that communication are suited unto the distinct nature of each truth in particular.”
John Owen, Works III:5-6
The Dawn of Revelation
0Here’s a paper I wrote last week, collecting my thoughts on the doctrine of Scripture that I’ve recently studied. I’d appreciate any thoughts or feed back from folks.
Thanks,
~Jacob
Revelation and Scripture Distinguished
03 years ago
“…The earlier theology almost completely allowed revelation to coincide with divine inspiration, the gift of Scripture. It only incidentally referred to revelation and conceived of it much to narrowly. It seem as if there was nothing behind Scripture. As a result Scripture came to stand in complete detachment and isolation and made it seem as if it had suddenly dropped out of heaven. The mighty conception of revelation as a history that began at the fall and ends only in the perousia was – at least to scientific theology – almost totally foreign. This view is untenable. After all, in by far the majority of cases, revelation is antecedent to divine inspiration and often separated from it for a long time. The revelation of God to the patriarchs, in the history of Israel, in the person of Christ was sometimes not described till centuries and years later, and also the prophets and apostles frequently recorded their revelations only after their reception (e.g. Jer. 25:13; 30:1; 36:2ff.). In this connection not everything was recorded that, when it came, did in fact belong to the circle of revelation (John 20:30; 21:25). In addition there were many persons, such as Elijah, Elisha, Thomas, and Nathanael, etc. organs of revelation, who nevertheless never wrote a book that was included in the canon; others, by contrasts, received no revelations and performed no miracles but did record them in writing, as for example the writers of the many historical books. Revelation further took place in different forms (dreams, visions, etc.) and was intended to make known something that was hidden; [divine inspiration] was always an interior working of God’s Spirit in and upon the [human] consciousness and served to guarantee the content of Scripture.
Modern theology therefore rightly made a distinction between divine revelation and scripture. But this theology often fell into the opposite extreme. It so completely detached revelation from Scripture that it became no more than an accidental appendix, an arbitrary addition, a human record of revelation, which might perhaps still be useful but was in any case not necessary. This theme was acclaimed in all sorts of variations: “Not the letter but the Spirit”; “not Scripture but the person of Christ”; “not the word but the fact is the fundamental principle of Scripture.” And Lessing managed to produce the familiar petition: “O Luther, you great and holy man! You have delivered us from the yoke of the pope but who will deliver us from the yoke of the letter, the paper pope?” This view is no less wrong but even more dangerous than the other. For in many cases revelation and divine inspiration do coincide. Far from everything that is recorded in Scripture was revealed in advance but arose in the authors’ consciousness during the wring itself, e.g. the Psalms and the Letters, etc. Those who deny divine inspiration and despise Scripture will also in large part lose the revelation; will have left nothing but human writings. In addition the revelation, even where in fact or word it preceded its recording, is known to us solely from Holy Scripture. We literally know nothing of the revelation of God in the time of Israel and in Christ except from Holy Scripture. There is no other primary principle. With the fall of Holy Scripture, therefore, all the revelation falls as well, as does the person of Christ. Precisely becaue revelation is history there is no way to learn something about it other than the ordinary way that applies to all of history and that is human attestation. To our mind attestation decides about the reality of a fact. We have no fellowship with Christ except through fellowship in the word of the apostles (John 17:20,21; 1 John 1:3). For us, the church of all the ages, revelation exists only in the form of Holy Scripture. Finally, divine inspiration, as will be evident later, is an attribute of the Scriptures, a unique and distinct activity of God in connection with the production of Scripture and therefore also itself to be acknowledged and honored to that extent as an act of revelation. Hence contempt for and the rejection of Scripture is not a harmless act with regard to human testimonies concerning revelation but denial of a special revelational act of God.
Hence both schools are one-sided, the one that fails to do justice to revelation for the sake of Scripture as well as the one that fails to do justice to Scripture for the sake of revelation. In the former, divine revelation, in the latter, divine inspiration does not come into its own. In the one, people have Scripture without scriptures; in the other, scriptures without Scripture. In the former there is a neglect of history; in the other contempt for the Word. The former lapses into orthodox intellectualism; the latter is in danger of Anabaptistic spiritualism. The right view is one in which Scripture is neither equated with revelation nor detached from it and place outside of it. Divine inspiration is an element in revelation, a last act in which the revelation of God in Christ is concluded for this dispensation. Hence it is in that sense the end, the crown, the making permanent, and the publication of revelation, the means by which immediate revelation is made mediate and recounted in books.”
~ Herman Bavinck, Reformed Dogmatics 1:381-382
